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标题: 【名词解释】白澳政策 - IELTS 4*7. [打印本页]

作者: newoz 时间: 28-1-2011 18:53
标题: 【名词解释】白澳政策 - IELTS 4*7.
http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh/%E7%99%BD%E6%BE%B3%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Australia_policy

第一任总理埃德蒙·巴顿宣称“人类平等的原则只适用于英国人之间，英国人跟中国人之间则不遵循这条原则。”

澳洲土著，亚非裔和其他所有非白种人都是1901年“白澳政策”的受害者。当时首任总理 Edmund Barton 提议所有移民申请者必须通过50个单词的听写测试，变相将所有非欧洲人拒之门外。最终该法案得以通过，史称『白澳政策』。

白澳政策（英文：White Australia Policy）是澳大利亚联邦反亚洲移民的种族主义政策的通称。1901年，白澳政策正式确立为基本国策，只许白人移民流入。在此政策下，大部分[來源請求]华人忍受不了欺压，被迫离开澳大利亚。1972年澳大利亚工党政府取消了白澳政策。
目录 [隐藏]
1 背景与起因
2 政策的实行
3 政策的消亡
4 影响
5 参看
[编辑]背景与起因

该政策的源头可以追溯到1850年代，当时有一大批中国人受“淘金热”的吸引移民到澳大利亚。许多英裔澳大利亚人埋怨中国人的到來引致工資水平下降，同时迁怒于他们带来的中国文化传统，遂连续发生了许多起排华暴乱（诸如Lambing Flat 暴乱）。刚建立起的以白人为主的自治政府亦持排华态度，陆续制定出一系列限制中国人移民的法案。到1888年，所有澳洲殖民地不再接受中国移民。第一任总理埃德蒙·巴顿宣称“人类平等的原则只适用于英国人之间，英国人跟中国人之间则不遵循这条原则。”该政策的另一源头是阻止美拉尼西亚人（被蔑称为“Kanaka”）进入昆士兰的甘蔗园工作。当时因为许多医学专家认为白人的体质不适合从事这种热带地区的工作（恐怕低廉的成本和温顺的性格才是引入美拉尼西亚人的主要原因），故引进了很多美拉尼西亚廉價劳工。也有些美拉尼西亚人是被劫掠到澳洲的（这种行为白人自己戏称“捉黑鸟”）。为了阻止这种行为的继续以及非欧劳力的继续涌入，1890年代有大约7000美拉尼西亚劳工被政府驱逐，随后政府和工會达成协议，只允许白人劳力从事农场的工作。这项政策的基本意图是保持种族的“纯净”。“为了保证澳洲一直不受低等人种的污染和劣化，我将采取任何必要的措施。”（英联邦议会纪录，1901年9月12日，4845页）工會和它操持的政党澳大利亚工党是白澳政策的主要促动者。克里斯·沃森（时任工党领袖）宣称，“我反对将有色种人与白人混杂的──当然我承认它跟工业化有关──主要由于种族污染的可能性。”
白澳洲人普遍相信种族纯净有助于保持经济和社会的稳定。“澳洲的统一将毫无意义，如果不是用在一个统一的种族上。一个统一的种族不仅意味着它的成员可以相互混杂、通婚、相互交流而不招致退化，还意味着相信同一个观念……”（阿尔弗雷德·狄金，英联邦议会纪录，1901年9月12日，4807页）。其它有关种族纯净的观点参看“被偷走的一代”。对中国移民的敌视可从“黄祸”一詞中反映，而这种态度在澳洲最为明显。1901年的澳大利亚人口为三百七十万，跟亚洲相差很远，所以有人“担心”中国移民的湧入会“吞没”欧裔澳人。联邦政府担心难以控制的移民潮流会大幅度降低工资水平，这不是无稽之谈：许多雇主公开声称他们会那样做。这种情绪在亨利·劳森（澳大利亚著名诗人）1906年写的一首诗“to be amused”中反映。
[编辑]政策的实行

1901年，新的联邦政府所进行的第一项立法举措，就是通过了臭名昭著的移民限制法以便“在移民问题上作出一些限制……以清除……非法移民”，南非已有类似的移民限制法案。最早的草案明令禁止非欧洲移民的进入，但由于英国政府出于对在印度的权益和与日本的关系的考虑的反对，巴顿政府只得取消这种公开的规定，代之以“听力测验”来排除不要的移民。移民官员有权阻止任何未在一项五十个词的听力测验（考方可使用任何一门欧洲语言）上达标的移民申请者。
当时，澳大利亚不是唯一采取这种移民政策的英国属地，白人们相信种族之间有天生的差异，并认为自己的种族优于其他。这种观点常常导致带有种族歧视的政策出台，比如吉姆·克劳法案。南非、加拿大和新西兰甚至美国在19世纪末20世纪初都有不同程度的种族限制移民政策。1905年的英国政府通过了有利于犹太移民的法案。澳大利亚士兵在1919年参与了攻击卡迪夫市黑种英裔社区的事件。
[编辑]政策的消亡

按照1950年的科伦坡计划，亚洲国家的学生可以到澳大利亚的大学念书，这一举措有助于瓦解歧视非白裔种族的态度。到1957年，居住在澳洲15年以上的非白裔人口已有资格取得公民权，而1958年的移民法废除了听力测试，代之以更简单的入境考核。
1966年3月，在回顾了过去的非欧洲移民政策后，移民局长胡伯特·欧佩尔曼说，那些条件适合、被认为能够马上融入澳洲文化且会对澳国发展有所助益的非欧裔申请人将被许可移民到澳洲。
与此同时，霍尔特的自由党政府选定了一批有“暂住资格”的非欧裔澳人，这些人在五年后（同欧裔移民一样）可以按自愿成为永久住民和澳国公民。
白澳政策的真正有效废除通常被认为在1973年，当惠特兰的工党在移民法中增加了一系列阻止强化种族观点的修正案后。这些修正案确保了所有移民无论出生都有权在居住三年之后获取公民权，并认可所有关于移民与种族的国际协定。1975年的种族歧视法案则使得官方制定的带有种族色彩的规则为非法。
直到1978年，弗雷色政府对移民法的修正才最终将按出生国家选择移民的政策完全废除。最近的移民有很多来自中国和印度，虽然英国和新西兰的移民仍占绝大多数比重。
[编辑]影响

今天的澳洲人大部分属于欧裔，约占总人口的85%的，其中又以英裔最多（33.9%），然后是爱尔兰裔（10.2%）、意裔（4.3%）、德裔（4.0%）、苏格兰裔（2.9%）和希腊裔（2.0%）。剩下的有12%是亚裔（包括土耳其、阿拉伯、伊朗、南亚次大陆、东南亚和东亚的移民），还有3%是本土原住民及其他。
澳大利亚统计局预测，到2100年，英-爱裔的澳人所占比重将会大幅度下降，因为新移民的生育率相对较高。
本地澳大利亚人生育率的下降使得移民的种族限制有成为某些政治团体的话题，诸如單一民族黨（One Nation），1980、90年代，他们主要針對东亚和东南亚移民。许多人将單一民族黨的胜利视作白澳政策的再度抬头。近年来，这种情结的指向则部分转移到中东地区的移民。2005年悉尼的种族暴乱被认为是多元文化政策的结果，也有人认为是多元文化政策的缺少所造成的。
然而，从大众的讨论中可以看到白澳政策更深远的影响。许多政治集团都公开声称白澳政策不是种族政策，这种断言的根据是认为非欧洲种族比欧洲种族要劣等，当然对经济竞争和失去白人的主导控制权也是其理由之一。事实上，在白澳政策的高峰期，许多澳大利亚政治家，如同他们的南非“同仁”一样，将反对的声音用上述的理由打发。比如，总理埃德蒙·巴顿声称，“我不认为人类平等的原则包括种族平等。种族间是没有平等的，只有根本上的不平等。那些种族同我们白种人相比是较低劣的……”
像许多其它英国殖民地一样，澳大利亚是作为白人殖民地而建立的，后者逐渐取代了本土居民。此外，它的四邻五舍大多是非欧洲国家。20世纪八、九十年代，政府和媒体往往提倡的观点，比如澳大利亚共和国、同本地人的和谐相处、多元文化主义和亚太地区（澳洲被认为是其一部分）。而一些保守的澳人则讥笑这些说，澳大利亚是一个以欧洲移民为基础的西方国家。约翰·霍华德未成為總理時，在1988年曾經提出限制亞裔移民進入的「一個澳洲」政策，引起爭議。
在海外，也在澳大利亚，任何轻微的种族主义偏向都会被人以历史的眼光打量，比如关于單一民族黨創立人寶琳·韓森的报道、太平洋解决方案（澳国政府的一项驱逐避难者的政策）、沙培利·科尔比在印尼的审判和2005年在悉尼的种族暴乱。此外，工党领袖马克·兰萨姆，在他的著作《兰萨姆日记》中提到ANZUS联盟是白澳政策的后继，意在影射澳大利亚、新西兰和美国的军事联盟是以种族主义为基本原则和目的而建立的。

The White Australia policy comprises various historical policies that intentionally restricted "non-white" immigration to Australia from 1901 to 1973.
Competition in the goldfields, labour disputes and Australian nationalism created an environment of racial antagonism during the second half of the 19th century which led to the passage of the Immigration Restriction Act in 1901, one of the first Acts of the new national parliament upon federation. The passage of this bill is considered the commencement of the White Australia Policy as Australian government policy. Subsequent acts further strengthened the policy up to the start of World War II.
The policy was dismantled in stages by several successive governments after the conclusion of World War II, with the encouragement of first non-British and later non-white immigration. From 1973 on, the White Australia policy was for all practical purposes defunct, and in 1975 the Australian government passed the Racial Discrimination Act, which made racially-based selection criteria illegal.
Contents [hide]
1 Immigration policy prior to Federation
1.1 Gold Rush era
1.2 Support from the Australian labour movement
2 From Federation to World War II
2.1 Federation Convention and Australia's first government
2.2 Immigration Restriction Act 1901
2.3 The Paris Peace Conference
2.4 Stanley Bruce
3 Abolition of the policy
3.1 World War II
3.2 Relaxation of restrictions
3.3 End of the White Australia Policy
4 Legacy
4.1 Contemporary demographics
4.2 Political and social legacy
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
[edit]Immigration policy prior to Federation

[edit]Gold Rush era
The discovery of gold in Australia in 1851 led to an influx of immigrants from all around the world. Over the next 20 years, 40,000 Chinese men and over 9,000 women (mostly Cantonese) immigrated to the goldfields seeking prosperity.[1]
Competition on the goldfields led to tensions between groups and eventually a series of significant protests and riots, including the Buckland Riot in 1857 and the Lambing Flat Riots between 1860 and 1861. Governor Hotham, on 16 November 1854, appointed a Royal Commission on Victorian goldfields problems and grievances. This led to restrictions being placed on Chinese immigration and residency taxes levied from Chinese residents in Victoria from 1855 with New South Wales following suit in 1861. These restrictions remained in force until the early 1870s.[2]
[edit]Support from the Australian labour movement
The growth of the sugar industry in Queensland in the 1870s led to searching for labourers prepared to work in a tropical environment. During this time, thousands of "Kanakas" (Pacific Islanders) were brought into Australia as indentured workers.[3] This and related practices of bringing in non-white labour to be cheaply employed was commonly termed "blackbirding" and refers to the recruitment of people through trickery and kidnappings to work on plantations, particularly the sugar cane plantations of Queensland (Australia) and Fiji.[4] In the 1870s and 1880s, the trade union movement began a series of protests against foreign labour. Their arguments were that Asians and Chinese took jobs away from white men, worked for "substandard" wages, lowered working conditions and refused unionisation.[1]
Objections to these arguments came largely from wealthy land owners in rural areas.[1] It was argued that without Asiatics to work in the tropical areas of the Northern Territory and Queensland, the area would have to be abandoned.[3] Despite these objections to restricting immigration, between 1875–1888 all Australian colonies enacted legislation which excluded all further Chinese immigration.[3] Asian immigrants already residing in the Australian colonies were not expelled and retained the same rights as their Anglo and Southern compatriots.
Agreements were made to further increase these restrictions in 1895 following an Inter-colonial Premier's Conference where all colonies agreed to extend entry restrictions to all non-white races. However, in attempting to enact this legislation, the Governors of New South Wales, South Australia and Tasmania reserved the bills, due to a treaty with Japan, and they did not become law. Instead, the Natal Act of 1897 was introduced, restricting "undesirable persons" rather than any specific race.[1]
The British government in London was not pleased with legislation that discriminated against certain subjects of its Empire, but decided not to disallow the laws that were passed. Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain explained in 1897:
"We quite sympathise with the determination...of these colonies...that there should not be an influx of people alien in civilisation, alien in religion, alien in customs, whose influx, moreover, would seriously interfere with the legitimate rights of the existing labouring population."[5]
[edit]From Federation to World War II

[edit]Federation Convention and Australia's first government
Immigration was a prominent topic in the lead up to Australian Federation. At the Federation Convention, Western Australian premier and future federal cabinet member, John Forrest, summarised the prevailing feeling:[4]
[It is] of no use to shut our eyes to the fact that there is a great feeling all over Australia against the introduction of coloured persons. It goes without saying that we do not like to talk about it, but it is so.
The government following Federation in 1901 was formed by the Protectionist Party with the support of the Australian Labor Party. The support of the Labor Party was contingent upon restricting non-white immigration, reflecting the attitudes of the Australian Worker's Union and other labour organisations at the time, upon whose support the Labor Party was founded.
[edit]Immigration Restriction Act 1901
Main article: Immigration Restriction Act 1901
The new Federal Parliament, as one of its first pieces of legislation, passed the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 to "place certain restrictions on immigration and... for the removal... of prohibited immigrants". The Act drew on similar legislation in South Africa. Edmund Barton, the prime minister, argued in support of the Bill with the following statement: "The doctrine of the equality of man was never intended to apply to the equality of the Englishman and the Chinaman."
The chief architect of the policy, Alfred Deakin, believed that the Japanese and Chinese[6] might be a threat to the newly formed federation and it was this belief that led to legislation to ensure they would be kept out:
"It is not the bad qualities, but the good qualities of these alien races that make them so dangerous to us. It is their inexhaustible energy, their power of applying themselves to new tasks, their endurance and low standard of living that make them such competitors." [7]
Early drafts of the Act explicitly banned non-Europeans from migrating to Australia but objections from the British government, which feared that such a measure would offend British subjects in India and Britain's allies in Japan, caused the Barton government to remove this wording. Instead, a "dictation test" was introduced as a device for excluding unwanted immigrants. Immigration officials were given the power to exclude any person who failed to pass a 50-word dictation test. At first this was to be in any European language, but was later changed to include any language. The tests were written in such a way to make them nearly impossible to pass.
In 1902 the Australian parliament passed the Pacific Island Labourers Act. The result of this legislation was that 7,500 Pacific Islanders (called "Kanakas") working mostly on plantations in Queensland were deported and entry into Australia by Pacific Islanders after 1904 was prohibited.
[edit]The Paris Peace Conference
At the 1919 Paris Peace Conference following World War I, Japan sought to include a racial equality clause in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Japanese policy reflected their desire to remove or to ease the immigration restrictions against Japanese (especially in the United States and Canada), which Japan regarded as a humiliation and affront to its prestige.
Australia was one of few countries which had race as a dominant political ideology at the time. As such, Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes vehemently opposed Japan's racial equality proposition. Hughes recognised that such a clause would be a threat to White Australia and made it clear to British Prime Minister David Lloyd George that he would leave the conference if the clause was adopted. When the proposal failed, Hughes reported in the Australian parliament:
"The White Australia is yours. You may do with it what you please, but at any rate, the soldiers have achieved the victory and my colleagues and I have brought that great principle back to you from the conference, as safe as it was on the day when it was first adopted."[8]
[edit]Stanley Bruce
Australian Prime Minister Stanley Bruce was a supporter of the White Australia Policy, and made it an issue in his campaign for the 1925 Australian Federal election.[9]
“ It is necessary that we should determine what are the ideals towards which every Australian would desire to strive. I think those ideals might well be stated as being to secure our national safety, and to ensure the maintenance of our White Australia Policy to continue as an integral portion of the British Empire.[9] We intend to keep this country white and not allow its peoples to be faced with the problems that at present are practically insoluble in many parts of the world."[10] ”
—Prime Minister Stanley Bruce during his 1925 election campaign speech
[edit]Abolition of the policy

[edit]World War II
Between the Great Depression starting in 1929 and the end of World War II in 1945, global conditions kept immigration to very low levels.[11] At the start of the war, Prime Minister John Curtin (ALP) reinforced the message of the White Australia Policy by saying: "This country shall remain forever the home of the descendants of those people who came here in peace in order to establish in the South Seas an outpost of the British race."[12]
However, by the end of World War II, Australia's vulnerability during the war in the Pacific and small population led to policies summarised by the slogan, "Populate or Perish", an ethnocentric slogan that meant "Fill with whites, lest we be filled with yellows".[13] During the war, many non-white refugees, including Malays, Indonesians, and Filipinos, had settled in Australia, but Immigration Minister Arthur Calwell controversially sought to have them all deported. In 1948, Iranian Bahá'ís seeking to immigrate to Australia were classified as "Asiatic" by the policy and were denied entry.[14] In 1949, Calwell's successor Harold Holt allowed the remaining 800 non-white refugees to apply for residency, and also allowed Japanese "war brides" to settle in Australia.[12] In the meantime, encouraging immigration from Europe, Australia admitted large numbers of immigrants from mostly Italy, Greece, and Yugoslavia, as well as its traditional source of the British Isles.
[edit]Relaxation of restrictions
Australian policy began to shift towards significantly increasing immigration. Legislative changes over the next few decades continuously opened up immigration in Australia.[11]
1947 The Australian Government relaxed the Immigration Restriction Act allowing non-Europeans the right to settle permanently in Australia for business reasons.
1950 Colombo Plan, students from Asian countries were admitted to study at Australian universities.
1957 Non-Europeans with 15 years' residence in Australia were allowed to become citizens.
1958 The Revised Migration Act of 1958 abolished the dictation test and introduced a simpler system for entry.
1959 Australians were permitted to sponsor Asian spouses for citizenship.
1964 Conditions of entry for people of non-European stock were relaxed.
After a review of the European policy in March 1966, Immigration Minister Hubert Opperman announced applications for migration would be accepted from well-qualified people on the basis of their suitability as settlers, their ability to integrate readily and their possession of qualifications positively useful to Australia. At the same time, the Holt Liberal government decided a number of "temporary resident" non-Europeans, who were not required to leave Australia, could become permanent residents and citizens after five years (the same as for Europeans).
As a result, annual non-European settler arrivals rose from 746 in 1966 to 2,696 in 1971, while annual part-European settler arrivals rose from 1,498 to 6,054.[12]
[edit]End of the White Australia Policy
The legal end of the White Australia policy is usually placed in the year 1973, when the Whitlam Labor government implemented a series of amendments preventing the enforcement of racial aspects of the immigration law. These amendments:[12]
Legislated that all migrants, regardless of origin, be eligible to obtain citizenship after three years of permanent residence.
Ratified all international agreements relating to immigration and race.
Issued policy to totally disregard race as a factor in selecting migrants.
The 1975 Racial Discrimination Act made the use of racial criteria for any official purpose illegal.
It was not until the Fraser Liberal government's review of immigration law in 1978 that all selection of prospective migrants based on country of origin was entirely removed from official policy. Currently, a large number of Australia's immigrants are from countries such as China and India, though the United Kingdom and New Zealand respectively remain the two largest single sources of immigrants.
In 1981 the Minister for Immigration announced a Special Humanitarian Assistance Program (SHP) for Iranians to seek refuge in Australia and by 1988 some 2500 Bahá'ís and many more others had arrived in Australia through either SHP or Refugee Programs.[14] The last selective immigration policy, offering relocation assistance to British nationals, was finally removed in 1982.[15]
[edit]Legacy

[edit]Contemporary demographics
The 2001 Australian census results indicate that many Australians claim some European heritage: English 37%, Irish 11%, Italian 5%, German 4.3%, Scottish 3%, Greek 2%, Dutch 1.5%, Polish 0.9%. Australians of some non-European origin form a significant but still relatively small part of the population: Chinese 3.2%, Indian 0.9%, Lebanese 0.9%, Vietnamese 0.9%. About 2.2% identified themselves as Indigenous Australians. 39% of the population gave their ancestry as "Australian". The Australian census does not classify people according to race, only ethnic ancestry. (Note that subjects were permitted to select more than one answer for this census question.)[16]
15% of the population now speaks a language other than English at home.[17] The most commonly spoken languages are Italian, Greek, Cantonese and Arabic.
[edit]Political and social legacy
Discrimination on the basis of race or ethnicity was legally sanctioned until 1975. Australia's new official policy on racial diversity is: "to build on our success as a culturally diverse, accepting and open society, united through a shared future".[18] The White Australia Policy continues to be mentioned in modern contexts, although it is generally only mentioned by politicians when denouncing their opposition. As Leader of the Opposition, John Howard, argued for restricting Asian immigration in 1988, as part of his One Australia policy, later admitting that his comments cost him his job at the time:
“ I'm not in favour of going back to a White Australia policy. I do believe that if it is – in the eyes of some in the community – that it's too great, it would be in our immediate-term interest and supporting of social cohesion if it (Asian immigration) were slowed down a little, so the capacity of the community to absorb it was greater.[19] ”
—John Howard speaking on ABC Radio PM, 1 August 1988
At its peak, Pauline Hanson's One Nation party received 9% of the national vote.[20] Pauline Hanson was widely accused of trying to take Australia back to the days of the White Australia Policy, particularly through reference to Arthur Calwell, one of the policy's strongest supporters:
“ I and most Australians want our immigration policy radically reviewed and that of multiculturalism abolished. I believe we are in danger of being swamped by Asians. Between 1984 and 1995, 40 per cent of all migrants coming into this country were of Asian origin. They have their own culture and religion, form ghettos and do not assimilate.[21] ”
—Pauline Hanson in her maiden speech to parliament
On 24 May 2007, Pauline Hanson, with her new Pauline's United Australia Party, continued her call for a freeze on immigration, arguing that African migrants carried disease into Australia.[22] Topics related to racism and immigration in Australia are still regularly connected by the media to the White Australia Policy. Some examples of issues and events where this connection has been made include: reconciliation with Aborigines; mandatory detention and the "Pacific Solution"; the 2005 Cronulla riots, and the 2009 attacks on Indians in Australia. Former opposition Labor party leader Mark Latham, in his book The Latham Diaries, described the ANZUS alliance as a legacy of the White Australia policy.
In 2007, the Howard Government introduced a citizenship test to include a tougher English language test[citation needed], and a test on "Australian" values[citation needed]. The actual questions of such citizenship test have not been publicly released[citation needed], and its future is in question given the ALP victory in the 2007 election.
Australian government policy from earlier years has been claimed to be the original impetus for the apartheid system in South Africa.[23]
[edit]See also

One Australia policy
Jarrod Glover
Eurocentrism
First white child
Racism
Eugenics in the United States
Racial equality proposal
Head tax (New Zealand)
Settler colonialism
South Sea Islanders
Sinophobia
Yellow peril
Europeans in Oceania
Head tax (Canada) and Chinese Immigration Act, 1923
Anti-Chinese legislation in the United States
Apartheid
Asian Exclusion Act in the United States
Iranian Australian and Bahá'í Faith in Australia
Casteism
[edit]References

^ a b c d Markey, Raymond (1 January 1996). "Race and organized labor in Australia, 1850–1901". Highbeam Research. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ R. Lockwood, "British Imperial Influences in the Foundation of the White Australia Policy," Labour History, No. 7 (Nov. 1964), pp. 23–33 in JSTOR
^ a b c Griffiths, Phil (4 July 2002). "Towards White Australia: The shadow of Mill and the spectre of slavery in the 1880s debates on Chinese immigration" (RTF). 11th Biennial National Conference of the Australian Historical Association. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ a b Willoughby, Emma. "Our Federation Journey 1901–2001" (PDF). Museum Victoria. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Speech to Colonial Conference of 1897, quoted in J. Holland Rose et al., eds. The Cambridge History of the British Empire: Volume VII: Part I: Australia (1933) p 411; full text
^ Culture and Customs of Australia http://books.google.com.au/books ... num=3&ct=result
^ Kay Schaffer Manne's Generation: White Nation Responses to the Stolen Generation Report Australian Humanities Review http://www.lib.latrobe.edu.au/AH ... -2001/schaffer.html
^ "100 Years: The Australia Story. Episode 2: Rise And Fall Of White Australia". Australian Broadcasting Commission. 21 March 2001. Retrieved 29 January 2007.
^ a b "Policy Launch Speech: Stanley Bruce, Prime Minister" (PDF). Melbourne: The Age. 26 October 1925. pp. 11. Archived from the original on 2006. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
^ Bowen, James; Bowen, Margarita (2002). The Great Barrier Reef: History, Science, Heritage. Cambridge University Press. pp. 301. ISBN 0521824303. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
^ a b "Immigration to Australia During the 20th Century" (PDF). Australian Department of Immigration. Archived from the original on 17 April 2006. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ a b c d "Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy". Australian Department of Immigration. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Western Australia, "Populate or perish"
^ a b Hassall, Graham; (ed.) Ata, Abe (1989). Religion and Ethnic Identity, An Australian Study. Melbourne: Victoria College & Spectrum. pp. Chapter "Persian Bahá'ís in Australia"
^ Jupp, Dr James. "Immigration and Citizenship" (PDF). University of Melbourne. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ "Population characteristics: Ancestry of Australia's population". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Inglis, Christine (1 December 2002). "Australia's Increasing Ethnic and Religious Diversity". Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ "MULTICULTURAL AUSTRALIA: UNITED IN DIVERSITY (SOCIAL ENGINEERING AND THE ENFORCEMENT OF DIVERSITY)" (PDF). The Australian Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs. Archived from the original on 17 April 2006. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Megalogenis, George (20 February 2006). "Howard hits out at 'jihad' Muslims". The Australian. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Carr, Adam. "Federal Election of 3 October 1998". Archived from the original on 13 February 2006. Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ Hanson, Pauline (1 September 1996). "Maiden Speech". Retrieved 14 June 2006.
^ "Hanson launches campaign song". The Age (Melbourne). 5 October 2007.
^ The Electronic Journal of Australian and New Zealand History:
[edit]Further reading

Stefanie Affeldt: A Paroxysm of Whiteness. 'White' Labour, 'White' Nation and 'White' Sugar in Australia. In: Wages of Whiteness & Racist Symbolic Capital, ed. by Wulf D. Hund, Jeremy Krikler, David Roediger. Berlin: Lit 2010, pp. 99 - 131. ISBN 978-3-643-10949-1
John Bailey (2001). The White Divers of Broome. Sydney, MacMillan. ISBN 0-7329-1078-1.
Jane Doulman and David Lee (2008). Every Assistance & Protection: a History of the Australian Passport. Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade / Federation Press.
Ian Duffield (1993). Skilled Workers or Marginalised Poor? The African Population of the United Kingdom, 1812–1852. Immigrants and Minorities Vol. 12, No. 3; Frank Cass.
John Fitzgerald (2007). Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia. Sydney.
Wulf D. Hund (2006): White Australia oder der Krieg der Historiker. In: Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik, 3.
Laksiri Jayasuriya, David Walker, Jan Gothard (Eds.) (2003): Legacies of White Australia. Crawley, University of Western Australia Press.
James Jupp and Maria Kabala (1993). The Politics of Australian Immigration. Australian Government Publishing Service.
Gwenda Tavan (2005). The Long, Slow Death of White Australia. Scribe.
Myra Willard (1923). History of the White Australia Policy to 1920. Melbourne University Press. (old but still very useful)
Keith Windschuttle (2004). The White Australia Policy. Macleay Press.
[edit]External links

"Immigration Restriction Act 1901". National Archives of Australia: Documenting a Democracy. Retrieved 14 February 2006. (scan of the Act and information)
The Mabel Freer Case
Educational Resources about the White Australia Policy
Newton Barton Diary, 1894–1895 – A shipboard diary kept by able seaman Newton Barton on one of his voyages to recruit South Sea Islanders for the Queensland cane fields. Digitised and held by the State Library of Queensland.

作者: seanpro 时间: 28-1-2011 19:00
热情围观楼主

作者: Xavy 时间: 28-1-2011 19:21
4个7就白啦，呵呵，太天朝主义了吧

作者: revstar 时间: 28-1-2011 19:23
白澳政策也很正常

如果不是白澳占主体的话，澳洲就不是澳洲了

如果澳洲都是中国人了，你还移民过去干吗？

作者: newoz 时间: 28-1-2011 20:44
"中国就有这么一群奇怪的人, 本身是最底阶层, 利益每天都在被损害,却具有统治阶级的意识. 在动物世界里找这么弱智的东西都几乎不可能." - 林语堂

人们之所以去澳洲，与白不白无关。人们要的是制度。白并不等于制度。美国也不是很白，杂七杂八的人，制度却也不赖。白澳很显然是赤裸裸的歧视政策，IELTS的4×7就是其死灰复燃的产物。而今天的澳洲华人非但不起来游行，反而为其叫好，这真是逆向进化。好的制度没学来，把中国人那点多一事不如少一事，吃亏忍忍算了等等陋习全都发扬光大了。有着这种屎一样习俗的人过去，澳洲才真的不是澳洲了。

作者: axyou 时间: 28-1-2011 21:29
连case by case都不清楚，只会上纲上线？
敢把题目定的小点不？

作者: tristone 时间: 29-1-2011 01:16
我相信澳洲确实存在种族主义问题。我也相信澳洲的种族主义问题在世界上属于比较突出的。种族主义属于歧视的一种，就这点而言，澳洲应该比天朝要好的多。但是美国是否就一定好过澳洲，我觉得也未必。就从感恩节前那个手机拍摄警察对黑人施暴而被关进监狱的例子来看，恐怕远没有谁高谁低这么简单。我觉得歧视从来就是社会（包括人类和动物）与生俱来的特性之一。只要构成社会的个体没有做倒——事实上也不可能做到，完全平等，歧视的存在总是不可避免的。

但是4个7就一定是白澳，就一定是歧视，我觉得这个答案太简单太幼稚了。与其说白澳，还不如说市场供求关系变化来的靠谱一些。

作者: merryau 时间: 29-1-2011 01:20
什么白澳不白澳，我只在乎跟我相关，跟我family相关的是不是合理。
医疗，教育，卫生，环境，安全，养老这些跟我直接相关的东西考虑了再去想想那些其它政策！

作者: chrischen79 时间: 29-1-2011 01:26

原帖由 newoz 于 28-1-2011 21:44 发表

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"中国就有这么一群奇怪的人, 本身是最底阶层, 利益每天都在被损害,却具有统治阶级的意识. 在动物世界里找这么弱智的东西都几乎不可能." - 林语堂

人们之所以去澳洲，与白不白无关。人们要的是制度。白并不等于制度 ...

林语堂乃大师啊

作者: retrieve 时间: 29-1-2011 10:51
对啊，林语堂一句话概括中国人。所有说，中国几千年的历史其实不过是不断重复而已。

作者: delphi 时间: 29-1-2011 10:59

原帖由 newoz 于 28-1-2011 21:44 发表

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"中国就有这么一群奇怪的人, 本身是最底阶层, 利益每天都在被损害,却具有统治阶级的意识. 在动物世界里找这么弱智的东西都几乎不可能." - 林语堂

人们之所以去澳洲，与白不白无关。人们要的是制度。白并不等于制度 ...

中国现有的制度和政府是中国人自己选择的

中国文化本身就是一个大酱缸，臭不可闻，很多人都意识到这一点，但是套上了爱国的帽子就不愿意承认了

作者: 青山 时间: 29-1-2011 11:12
白澳政策跟你的family没关系？

原帖由 merryau 于 29-1-2011 02:20 发表

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什么白澳不白澳，我只在乎跟我相关，跟我family相关的是不是合理。
医疗，教育，卫生，环境，安全，养老这些跟我直接相关的东西考虑了再去想想那些其它政策！

作者: sdcmc 时间: 29-1-2011 16:07

原帖由 tristone 于 29-1-2011 02:16 发表

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我相信澳洲确实存在种族主义问题。我也相信澳洲的种族主义问题在世界上属于比较突出的。种族主义属于歧视的一种，就这点而言，澳洲应该比天朝要好的多。但是美国是否就一定好过澳洲，我觉得也未必。就从感恩节前那个 ...

。。。工厂招工招多少伤残聋哑的？不招算不算歧视？你跑去老外家里，人家不让你进门，你能说人家歧视你吗？

你逃离中国，说好听点那算不算歧视中国？

作者: zard 时间: 29-1-2011 16:40

原帖由 delphi 于 29-1-2011 11:59 发表

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中国现有的制度和政府是中国人自己选择的

中国文化本身就是一个大酱缸，臭不可闻，很多人都意识到这一点，但是套上了爱国的帽子就不愿意承认了

被选择的～～

作者: chnwq 时间: 29-1-2011 18:06
考不到7就别乱找理由
能考到7的中国人多得是。

作者: coredump 时间: 29-1-2011 18:51

原帖由 sdcmc 于 29-1-2011 16:07 发表

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。。。工厂招工招多少伤残聋哑的？不招算不算歧视？

算歧视。
澳洲政府对在澳洲的公司有伤残智障人士员工的比例要求的，不符合要求会被罚，还会定期跟踪调查，如果发现任何歧视或者故意分配超出这些员工的能力之外的工作，那就等着吃不了兜着走吧

作者: laserfree 时间: 29-1-2011 20:16
任何事情都是有他的根源的.种族歧视的根源在于各个种族在经济,科技,政治等主要领域的贡献差别很大.中华文明有很长的历史,很可惜科学技术的起源没有发生在中国,以至于之后在各个领域几乎全面地落后与西方.要想不要被别人歧视,自己就必须强大起来.作为华人,摆脱这种歧视的途径就是中国的强大.好在在亚洲,日本和韩国为我们奠定了很好的基础,加上中国本身的发展也很不错,客观上,黄种人还不会受到很强的歧视.当然已经在澳洲的华人移民自身也要努力增加自己实力.在这个世界里,弱者也许会得到一些人的同情,但是更多的人会天然地觉得他们更有优势.这种情况不仅仅发生在澳洲,即便在中国内部,一个贫困地区来的工人跑到上海北京去,同样会招到很多人的不屑.你可能会反对,但是客观上很多人会认为他们没有得到很好的教育,什么事情也做不好,应该受到这样的待遇.这个世界本来就不是平等的,客观上讲,没有人出生就比别人卑贱或者高贵,但是他所出的环境已经很大程度地决定了他的人生,除了一小撮里面的一小撮可以通过自身的努力来改变命运. 在这一点上,非洲人比我们要更加劣势.我一个朋友跟他们共过事发现,他们的本科也许比不过我们的高中生,他们一个物理系的本科生不知道动量是什么,虽然这是个例,却是血淋淋的事实,如果你看过介绍片,也是完全可以理解的.对他们,很多人的观点比较奇怪,居然是,我们本身也招歧视,所以不要歧视别人.楼上有人说来澳洲的原因是因为澳洲大多数人是白人,这相当于你承认了他们确实高人一等.种族歧视的问题本身是非常复杂的,不是任何人的错,要你把你放到非洲去估计也就这个样子.主要各个种族的发展程度保持这样的差异,种族歧视就不可能消除,绝对是不可能通过提高个人的修养或者教育可以达到消除的目的的.我相信物质决定意识,只有通过解决物质这个基础,才能彻底消除这个世纪难题.最后,发现坛子里很多同学很看不起中国文化,感觉非常诧异.要知道,中国文化在韩国和日本都扎根很深的.不管怎么样都是我们的祖先,起码的尊重也还是要的.

[ 本帖最后由 laserfree 于 29-1-2011 21:21 编辑 ]

作者: newoz 时间: 30-1-2011 00:19
标题: 回复 #15 chnwq 的帖子
您的回复真是太屌了，后生膜拜！您是一个伟大的中国人！我没什么可说的了。因为我们的逻辑系统不一样。

作者: beysup 时间: 30-1-2011 02:16
IELTS4个7和白澳根本扯不上关系，我认为这正是澳洲政府对移民负责的表现，如果你没有足够好的英语，到了澳洲无论工作，生活都会感到很不方便，英语的提高不是一朝一夕的事情。再说，提高IELTS对非英语的欧洲国家的人来说，也提高了门槛。

作者: Tux 时间: 30-1-2011 10:08
4個10才可以和1901年那個白澳政策中的50單詞聽寫測試相提並論。

作者: adelle 时间: 30-1-2011 10:43
语言要求是必须的，4个7对于应付日常工作生活要求不高。

作者: Xavy 时间: 30-1-2011 10:57
楼主的定义就是只有白人会讲英语是吧

作者: adelle 时间: 30-1-2011 11:03
人们之所以去澳洲，与白不白无关。人们要的是制度。白并不等于制度。美国也不是很白，杂七杂八的人，制度却也不赖。

==》你忘记这是别人的国家，人家有权制定游戏规则、进入门槛，欢迎什么人不欢迎什么人进来。你要的是制度，凭什么别人就得给你。

[ 本帖最后由 adelle 于 30-1-2011 12:07 编辑 ]

作者: black_swan 时间: 30-1-2011 12:05
这个事情要怪只能怪老祖宗了，18XX年英国人靠着坚船利炮满地球圈地盘的时候，我们当时的祖宗们还在搞提笼架鸟闻闻鼻烟壶那套玩意儿。。。历史很多时候就是这么无奈，强者来定规矩，弱者来遵守。今天的现实就是这样形成的。与其怀着满腔的愤怒去抱怨ielts4*7就是白澳，不如提高中国人自己的英语水平，到时候争取有更多的同胞来这里，把这里变“黄”。其它已经来到了自由国度的TX更要学会理性的去争取平等政策，不能再延续中国人几千年的奴性思维。

作者: laserfree 时间: 30-1-2011 14:31
4个7与白澳政策扯上关系还是很牵强，但是白澳的话题是始终存在的。虽然澳大利亚为他的多种族政策已经做了很多工作，但是种族歧视的案例仍时有发生。我相信很多人选择来到澳洲是因为在很多方面这边有更好的体制，而不只是为了跟白人住在一起(当然的确存在一部分人认为白人更礼貌更有素质)。既然你生活在那边，每天都必须要面对这样一个敏感而无奈问题，很多人实际上选择避开这种话题。我还是相信，华人的地位跟中国的发展水平有天然的联系。尽管他们自身的努力也很重要，但是这通常需要长时间甚至几代人的积累。生活在那边，究竟语言好到哪个程度算够？恐怕只有个人自己明白，什么样的语言程度会有什么样的生活，显然好的语言会带来更高的生活质量。作为澳洲政府，显然希望新移民的英语水平越高越好，但是他们必须要在职业技能和英语水平之间做出一个权衡。

[ 本帖最后由 laserfree 于 30-1-2011 15:36 编辑 ]

作者: z37214728 时间: 30-1-2011 14:42

我勒个去，按LZ这个逻辑，现在景德镇的任何一个新出台的政策，都可以被冠名为XX政策了。

作者: sdcmc 时间: 1-2-2011 14:06

原帖由 coredump 于 29-1-2011 19:51 发表

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算歧视。
澳洲政府对在澳洲的公司有伤残智障人士员工的比例要求的，不符合要求会被罚，还会定期跟踪调查，如果发现任何歧视或者故意分配超出这些员工的能力之外的工作，那就等着吃不了兜着走吧

这是个好东西，那是对自己人而言，对不是自己人，有此条例吗？就像你是我朋友，就是伤残我也会帮你，我不认得你，我帮你可以，
但我不帮你，你能告我歧视吗。

作者: Goodman 时间: 1-2-2011 22:39
说难听的，如果澳洲不白，全是中国人，请我去我都不去，你的心底也是一样的答案。

澳洲必须保持白人的一定数量，对其他种族反而是一件好事。

作者: 蓝山夜妖 时间: 2-2-2011 12:37
印度人考4x7容易很多，难道升级为印澳政策了？

作者: revstar 时间: 2-2-2011 13:12

原帖由 Goodman 于 1-2-2011 23:39 发表

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说难听的，如果澳洲不白，全是中国人，请我去我都不去，你的心底也是一样的答案。

澳洲必须保持白人的一定数量，对其他种族反而是一件好事。

是啊

现在发达国家都是过去英国的殖民地，就可以说明了保持白人种族和文化优势的重要性

作者: 柯罗 时间: 2-2-2011 17:07
翻一百多年前的政策来证明今天还是白澳？一百多年前，中国人还吊辫子着生活在有封建帝王的时代呢！
4个7就叫白澳？让一般的白人劳工阶层来考4个7就有4个7？
我看新政叫精英政策更合适。

作者: andrew.zhang 时间: 3-2-2011 18:43
4個7確實不容易考，但說是白澳就太過分了，畢竟7很多國人、印度人還有其他很多非白人國家都可以考到。

退一步講，提高英語水平卡的是非英語國家的人，其中包括大部份歐洲的國家，他們也是白人。

我也很不喜歡工黨的移民政策，天天變，但我反對將其與歧視掛鉤。

欢迎光临 FreeOZ论坛 (https://hioz.im/bbs/)